A chemist adds a chemical to pure water and there is a 100-fold increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions. the new ph value is 5.
What factors influence a solution's pH?The pH of a solution is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions in that solution. The pH value is the logarithmic value of the inverse of hydrogen ion activity. Because the concentration of hydrogen ions is frequently very low, ion activity is considered to be equal to the concentration of hydrogen ions.
What's the connection between ion activity and pH?The logarithmic value of the inverse of hydrogen ion activity is the pH value. Because the concentration of hydrogen ions is frequently very low, ion activity is assumed to be equal to the concentration of hydrogen ions. The pH is then the logarithm of the inverse of the concentration of hydrogen ions.
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In the mass spectrum of pentane, the presence of a peak with m/z = 57 is most likely to the detection of:?
In the mass spectrum of pentane, the presence of a peak with m/z = 57 is most likely to the detection of a butyl radical cation.
What does the mass spectrum of pentane look like at the molecular level?Because all molecular ions fragment, a few compounds have mass spectra that lack a molecular ion peak. That is not a problem you will encounter at A'level. In the mass spectrum of pentane, for example, the heaviest ion has an m/z value of 72.
In pentane, what is the m/z of the fragment ion?Lines with m/z values one or two lower than one of the simple lines, for example, are frequently caused by the loss of one or more hydrogen atoms during the fragmentation process. The base peak (the tallest peak and thus the most common fragment ion) is at m/z = 57 this time. This, however, is not produced by the same ion as the pentane m/z value peak.
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A gram of fat stores _____ energy than a gram of starch due to ______ within fat molecules relative to starch molecules.
A gram of fat stores more energy than a gram of starch due to more C-H bonds within fat molecules relative to starch molecules.
The energy released/stored by nutrients is known as calorific value.
The calorific value of a substance is expressed in kilo calories(kcal).
1 kcal is defined the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 °C.
The physiological calorific value of fats and carbohydrates is 9.0 kcal/g and 4.0 kcal/g respectively.
As it is evident from these values that the energy stored per gram of fat is more than the energy stored per gram of starch.
Now, the reason behind this difference in energies between these two molecules is due to the different number of C-H bonds present in them, as is evident from the adjoining images.
Therefore, A gram of fat stores more energy than a gram of starch due to more C-H bonds within fat molecules relative to starch molecules.
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A solution with ph 4 has __________ the h concentration of a solution with ph 8.
A solution with ph 4 has 10000 times the h concentration of a solution with ph 8.
the solution, in chemistry, is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances whose relative amounts can be varied continuously up to the so-called solubility limit. The term solution is usually applied to the liquid state of aggregation, but gaseous and solid solutions are also possible. Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solutions (tonic).
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components with particle sizes less than 1 nm. Common examples of solutions are the sugar in water and salt in water, soda water, etc. In solution, all components appear as a single phase.
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Most foods that are high in calcium are poor sources of iron. this statement illustrates the characteristic of a nutritious diet known as _____.
Most foods that are high in calcium are poor sources of iron. this statement illustrates the characteristic of a nutritious diet known as balance.
Nutrition is an important factor in health and development. Better nutrition is associated with improved infant, child, and maternal health, stronger immune systems, safer pregnancies and births, reduced risk of non-communicable diseases (such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease), and longer lifespans. doing. Healthy children learn better. Well-nourished people are more productive and can create opportunities to gradually break the cycle of poverty and hunger.
Malnutrition in all its forms poses a significant threat to human health. I'm facing Malnutrition has several forms and including undernutrition (wasting or underdevelopment), inadequate vitamins or minerals, overweight, obesity, and consequent diet-related noncommunicable diseases.
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A graduated cylinder is filled 10.10 mL with water and a piece of granite is placed in the cylinder, displacing the level to 19.45 mL. What is the volume of the granite piece in mL?
The volume of the granite piece in milliliters if a graduated cylinder is filled 10.10 mL with water and a piece of granite is placed in the cylinder, displacing the level to 19.45 mL is 9.35mL.
How to calculate volume?Volume of a substance refers to the amount of that substance in a container. The volume is measured in litres (L), which can be converted to milliliters (mL) as follows:
1 Litre = 1000 milliliters
According to this question, a graduated cylinder is filled 10.10 mL with water and a piece of granite is placed in the cylinder, displacing the level to 19.45 mL.
This means that the volume the granite occupies is as follows:
Volume of granite = 19.45mL - 10.10mL = 9.35mL
Therefore, the volume of the granite piece in milliliters if a graduated cylinder is filled 10.10 mL with water and a piece of granite is placed in the cylinder, displacing the level to 19.45 mL is 9.35mL.
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A ball-and-stick model of a molecule of formaldehyde, ch2o, is made from the following components: what do the sticks represent?
In chemistry, the ball-and-stick model is a molecular ideal of a chemical matter which is to expose both the three-dimensional position of the atoms and the bonds among them. The atoms are normally symbolise by spheres, join by rods which shows the bonds.
Formaldehyde forms formaldehyde structure bond it shares double bond with O2 atoms.
Formaldehyde also known as methanol .
Methanol is colourless.
It is flammable.
It is gas at room temperature.
Methanol having pungent odor and it is a volatile organic compounds.
It is made by the composition of Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbons.
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A dehumidifier tank is emptied once a day. If the capacity of the tank is 2 gallons, determine how many molecules of water the dehumidifier collects from the air per millisecond.
(1 quart = 0.94633 liters; 4 quarts = 1 gallon; density of water is 1g/mL; 18 g water = 6.02x10^23 molecules of water)
I'm terrible with Dimensional Analysis!
A dehumidifier tank is emptied once a day. if the capacity of tank is 2 gallons , Number of Molecules of water the dehumidifier collects from the air per millisecond is 2.92 × 10³² molecules / milliseconds
The capacity of dehumidifier tank = 2 gallons
1 gallon = 4 quarts , 1 quart = 0.94633
1 gallon = 3.785 L
2 gallon = 3.785 × 2 = 7.57 L = 7570 ml
time taken to fill the tank = 1 day
Density of water = 1 g/ml
Mass of water = D × V
= 7570 × 1 = 7570 g
molar mass of water = 18 g/mol
no. of moles = mass / molar mass
= 7570 / 18 = 420.5 moles
now, 1 mole of water contains = 6.022 × 10²³ water molecules
420.5 moles of water = 6.022 × 10²³ × 420.5
= 2.53 × 10²⁶ molecules
2.53 × 10²⁶ molecules collected in 1 day
1 day = 86400 sec
1 sec = 1000 milliseconds
86400 sec = 86400 × 1000 milliseconds
= 8.64 × 10⁷ milliseconds
so, the molecules of water collected per milliseconds
= 2.53 × 10²⁶ molecules / 8.64 × 10⁷ milliseconds
= 2.92 × 10³² molecules / milliseconds
Thus, A dehumidifier tank is emptied once a day. if the capacity of tank is 2 gallons, Number of Molecules of water the dehumidifier collects from the air per millisecond is 2.92 × 10³² molecules / milliseconds
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What is the forward rate with continuous compounding for a three-month period starting in one year?
Answer:8.7%
Explanation:
The forward rate for a three-month period starting in one year is 11.36% per annum.
The forward rate for a specific time period represents the interest rate for borrowing or lending money during that period in the future.
Let's denote:
[tex]r_1[/tex] = Spot rate for one year (annual rate)
[tex]r_2[/tex] = Spot rate for one year and three months (annual rate)
The formula for the forward rate with continuous compounding is given by:
[tex]\[ F = \frac{e^{(r2 * t2)} - e^{(r1 * t1)}}{t2 - t1} \][/tex]
where:
F is the forward rate
[tex]t_1[/tex] is the starting time in years (one year)
[tex]t_2[/tex] is the ending time in years (one year and three months)
Substituting the value
[tex]\[ r_1 = 9.5\% \\r_1 = 0.095)[/tex]
[tex]r_2 = 0.096\\\[ t1 = 1 \text{ year} \][/tex]
[tex]\[ t2 = 1 + \frac{3}{12}[/tex] = 1.25 year back to the formula as
[tex]\[ F = \frac{e^{(0.096 * 1.25)} - e^{(0.095 * 1)}}{1.25 - 1} \][/tex]
[tex]\[ F = \frac{e^{0.12} - e^{0.095}}{0.25} \][/tex]
[tex]\[ F = \dfrac{1.1275 - 1.0991}{0.25} \][/tex]
[tex]\[ F= \dfrac{0.0284}{0.25} \][/tex]
F= 0.1136
Now, convert the forward rate back to percentage:
Forward rate (F) ≈ 0.1136 * 100% = 11.36%
So, the forward rate is 11.36% per annum.
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The missing table attached at the end.
Select the correct mass for each of the samples described below.
8.32 × 10^20 formula units CaBr2
Answer:
Explanation:
To determine the mass of each compound, we need to convert them into units of moles first. We use avogadros number to do this and use the molar mass of the compounds to convert to mass.
3.01 × 1023 molecules H2O ( 1 mole / 6.022x10^23 kg) (18.02 g / 1 mole) = 9.01 g
8.32 × 1020 formula units CaBr2 ( 1 mole / 6.022x10^23 kg) (199.89 g / 1 mole) = 0.28 g
1.93 × 1026 molecules XeF6 ( 1 mole / 6.022x10^23 kg) (245.28 g / 1 mole) = 78610.16 g
Process in which co2, is released as a by-product of oxidation-reduction reactions.
Kreb's cycle or citric acid cycle is the process in which CO₂ is released as a by-product of oxidation-reduction reactions.
We all know that the by-product of respiration is CO₂. The CO₂ is actually a by-product of an oxidation-reduction reaction that occurs in the mitochondria of all eukaryotic cells called the Kreb's cycle.
The Kreb's cycle is also called the citric acid cycle because the first product is usually citric acid. It is the second stage in cellular respiration, and is also called the aerobic stage, as it requires oxygen to occur. Since it requires oxygen, anaerobic organisms do not engage in the Kreb's cycle.
During glycolysis, one glucose molecule is broken down to give two pyruvate molecules, which concludes the first stage of cellular respiration. The pyruvate molecule is then taken to the matrix of the mitochondria, where the Kreb's cycle occurs and is decarboxylated to give CoA. Certain enzymes then break down the CoA to give two molecules of CO₂ as a by-product and one molecule of H₂O.
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What is the state of hybridization of the central 0 atom in 03? describe the bonding in 03 in terms of delocalized molecular orbitals.
The hybridization of O in ozone molecule [tex]O_3[/tex] is [tex]sp^{2}[/tex]
The bond angle of ozone is 117.5° which is close to 120° , thus it show trigonal planar geometry and is [tex]sp^{2}[/tex] hybridized.
Bonding of oxygen in ozone can be stated as
Three sets of [tex]sp^{2}[/tex] hybrid orbital overlap to produce two [tex]O-O[/tex] σ bonds and five lone pair of electrons , two on both side oxygen atom and one pair on central atom.
The π bonding is formed by unhybridized [tex]2p_z[/tex] orbital on every oxygen atom . This π bonding is delocalized over all three oxygen atoms of ozone molecule.
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If the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for vitamin C is 60 mg per day and there are 70 mg of vitamin C per 100 g of orange, how many 3 oz. oranges would you have to eat each week to meet this requirement?
Please help, I'm terrible with Dimensional Analysis!!
The number of oranges to be eaten each week to meet the requirement is 7.
How are the RDA calculations done?
Mass of vitamin C is 70 mg.That is it is equal to 0.070 g.
as 1 mg=1×10[tex]^-3[/tex] g. And 60 mg is equal to 0.060 g according to this conversion.
The mass of orange in ounces is given as 3 oz.
As 1 oz=28.3495 g.Therefore,3 oz=(3×28.3495)g
which is equal to 85.045 g.
Given that 100 g orange has 0.070 g of vitamin C.Mass of vitamin C in 85.045 g of oranges is,
0.070/100×85.045=0.0595 g
Vitamin C consumed in 1 day is 0.060 g. Therefore in a week vitamin C consumed is 7×0.060=0.42 g.
To calculate the number of oranges to be eaten in a week it is calculated as,
Number of oranges=mass of vitamin C consumed in a week /mass of 3 oz oranges
Number of oranges=0.42 g/0.0595 g
=7.05≈7
Therefore,number of oranges to be eaten in a week are 7.
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What is reduced and what is oxidized in the reaction between a monosaccharide and a ferric ion?
In the reaction between a monosaccharide and a ferric ion, The carbonyl carbon is oxidized to a carboxyl group, the cupric ion is reduced.
Chemical reactions often involve color changes, temperature changes, gas evolution, or precipitate formation. Simple examples of everyday reactions are digestion, combustion, and cooking. The definition of reaction is a reaction. An example of a reaction is someone stopping their car at a stop sign. noun. response to stimuli.
The five basic types of chemical reactions are combination, decomposition, single exchange, double exchange, and combustion. By analyzing the reactants and products of a particular reaction, we can classify them into one of these categories. Some responses fit into multiple categories. It is modeled after the old Italian reaction, the French response, derived from the medieval Latin response (nominative to react). It is a noun of action formed in Late Latin from the past participle stem of the Latin reader.
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Most elements are metals. What is a
physical property of metals?
A. They conduct heat.
B. They are man-made.
C. They float in water.
Answer:
A. They conduct heat.
Explanation:
Gases other than compressed air are normally supplied in pressurized cylinders at?
Gases other than compressed air are normally supplied in pressurized cylinders at 1500 psi to 2000 psi.
What are compressed gas cylinders used for?
Cylinders of industrial compressed gas used in oxyfuel welding and steel cutting. A gas cylinder is a type of pressure container used to store and contain gases at pressures higher than atmospheric pressure.
Thus, typically, pressurized cylinders containing gases other than compressed air are delivered at pressures between 1500 and 2000 psi.
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2. What is the concentration in mol dm-3 of a solution which contains 3 moles of a given solute in 0.25dm³ (250cm³) of solution.
The concentration in mol dm-³ of a solution which contains 3 moles of a given solute in 0.25dm³ (250cm³) of solution is 12 mol/dm³.
How to calculate molarity?The concentration of a solution can be calculated by dividing the number of moles of the solution by its volume as per the following formula;
Concentration = moles ÷ volume
According to this question, a solution contains 3 moles of a given solute in 0.25dm³ (250cm³) of solution. The concentration of the solution can be calculated as follows:
Concentration = 3moles ÷ 0.25dm³
Concentration = 12 mol/dm³
Therefore, the concentration in mol dm-³ of a solution which contains 3 moles of a given solute in 0.25dm³ (250cm³) of solution is 12 mol/dm³.
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Which triacylglycerol yields more energy on oxidation: one containing three residues of linolenic acid or three residues of stearic acid?
The Tricyglycerol yields more energy on oxidation is the one containing three residues of stearic acid because it get fully reduced.
when atom or ion loses the electron in the process called as oxidation or the loss of hydrogen is called as oxidation. when the atom or ion gain electron in the process called as reduction or gain of hydrogen is called as reduction
when the oxidation takes place the oxidation state of atom increases and when reduction takes place the oxidation state of species decreases.
when molecule is oxidized, it loses energy and when molecule is reduced , it gains energy
Thus ,we can say that,The triacyglycerol cotaining the three stearic acid residues yield more energy because it is fully reduced.
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Which combinations of single and double bonds are possible around a carbon atom?
Two Single and One Double Covalent Bond are possible around a carbon atom. After the hydrogen, helium, and oxygen, carbon is the fourth most prevalent element in the universe by mass and the fifteenth most abundant element in the crust of the Earth.
Carbon can be considered a common component of all known life due to its abundance, distinctive diversity of organic compounds Bond and exceptional capacity to build polymers at Earth's typical temperatures. After oxygen, it makes up around 18.5% of the total mass of the human body. The allotropic form of carbon exhibits a wide range of physical properties.
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What are the equilibrium partial pressures of coco and co2co2 if coco is the only gas present initially, at a partial pressure of 0.900 atmatm ?
CO CO2
Initial partial pressure 1 0.9
Equilibrium partial pressure 1 - x 0.9 + x
The equilibrium constant is Kp=PCO2/PCO.
Substitute values: 0.259=(0.9+x) / 1−x
Hence, x = . -0.509
Hence, the equilibrium partial pressures of CO and CO2 are 1.509 atm, -0.509 atm respectively.
The pressure that is exerted with the aid of one among the mixture of gases if it occupies the identical quantity on its very own is acknowledged as Partial pressure. Every gasoline exerts sure strain in a mixture.
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Energy-requiring reactions can occur in biological systems because they can be coupled with reactions that are?
Energy-requiring reactions can occur in biological systems because they can be coupled with reactions that are exergonic reaction.
In chemical thermodynamics, an exergonic reaction is a chemical reaction where the conversion in the free energy is negative (there is a net allow to leave of free energy). This shows a unbidden reaction if the structure is closed and starting and final temperatures are the similar.
Formula of exergonic reaction :
∆G = Gproducts - Greactants
where
∆G = change in free energy
G-products = free energy of products
G-reactants = free energy of reactants
Now, it can understood that "Energy - requiring reactions can occur in biological systems because they can be coupled with reactions that are exergonic reactions."
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A(n) ___________ covalent bond is formed by an unequal sharing of one or more electron pairs.
A Polar covalent bond is formed by an unequal sharing of one or more electron pairs.
The bond formed by sharing of an electron pair between two atoms is known as covalent bond.
In a polar covalent bond the atoms have an unequal attraction for electrons and so the sharing is unequal. Bond between Oxygen and Hydrogen in water molecule is one of the example of polar covalent bond.
In Non-Polar Covalent bond the atoms have an equal attraction for electrons and so the sharing is equal. Bond between two Hydrogen atoms in [tex]H_{2}[/tex] molecule is one of the example of non-polar covalent bond.
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Complete each row of the table below by filling in the missing prefix or missing exponent.
The metric prefixes are a follows;
1 ng = 10^-9 g1 dg = 10^-10 g1μg = 10^-6 g1Mg = 10^6 gWhat are metric prefixes?The SI unit is the international system for the measurement of quantities. We know that the SI system is based on the metric system. The metric system has the units meter, gram and seconds as part of it.
Sometimes we use prefixes to show the magnitude of quantities when we are using the metric system. Let us now try to find the correct prefix or power in the following cases;
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Some liquid in a jar can be separated by physical means into two separate liquids, which can then be separated no further. the liquid is a(n)?
Some liquid in a jar can be separated by physical means into two separate liquids, which can then be separated no further. The liquid is a mixture
What is a mixture?
Typically, a mixture is described as a fabric that is composed of or greater separate chemical additives that are not chemically sure to each other.
The bodily mixture of some of substances wherein the characteristics of every factor are maintained as the components are combined into answers, suspensions, or colloids is known as a aggregate.
for this reason, it is feasible to bodily separate a number of the liquid in a jar into awesome liquids, and then the drinks can now not be separated anymore.
therefore, the liquid in a jar is a combination.
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What dipeptides would be formed by heating a mixture of valine and n -protected leucine?
Valine-valine and valine-leucine would be formed by heating a mixture of valine and N-protected leucine.
Amino acid leucine is protected at the N-terminal end, so it is not available to form a polypeptide at that end.
Peptide bond is a covalent chemical bond linking two consecutive alpha-amino acids from C1 (carbon number one) of one alpha-amino acid and N2 (nitrogen number two) of another along a peptide or protein chain.
Valine and leucine can react and form dipeptide valylleucine (valine-leucine), see picture below.
When two valine amino acids react, dipeptide valylvaline (valine-valine) is formed.
Polypeptide is a long and unbranched peptide chain with more than ten amino acids.
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6. the molecular weight of potassium chloride (kcl) is 74.55 g/mol. how many grams would you need for 650 ml of a 35 mm solution?
Mass of potassium chloride (KCl) is 1.7 grams.
M(KCl) = 74.55 g/mol; molar mass of potassium chloride
V(KCl) = 650 ml = 0.65 l; volume of potassium chloride solution
c(KCl) = 35 mM = 0.035 M; concentration of potassium chloride solution
m(KCl) = c(KCl) × V(KCl) × M(KCl)
m(KCl) = 0.035 M × 0.65 l × 74.55 g/mol
m(KCl) = 1.7 g; mass of potassium chloride
Potassium chloride (KCl) is a salt with ionic bond.
Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weight values of the atoms in a molecule.
The concentration is the amount of solute that has been dissolved in a given amount solution.
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The molecular formula for glucose is c6h12o6. What would be the molecular formula for a molecule made by linking three glucose molecules together by dehydration reactions?.
C₁₈H₃₂O₁₆ is the molecular formula called a-maltotriose for a molecule made by linking three glucose molecules together by dehydration reactions.
It is a dehydration reaction, it means that when two molecules are linked together, there will be one molecule of water H₂O removed
A-maltotriose molecule is a trisaccharide molecules which means linkage of three glucose molecules linked with 1,4 glycosidic bond this is called as a-maltotriose which is formed in the reaction as product
The reaction will be:
C₆H₁₁O₅-OH+H-C₆H₁₀O₅-OH+H-C₆H₁₁O₆→C₁₈H₃₂O₁₆+2H₂O
Here one molecule of water H₂O removed.
Therefore molecular formula of the molecule formed will be C₁₈H₃₂O₁₆.
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A flask weighs 43.50 g when it is empty and 105.50
g when filled with water. when the same flask is
filled to the same volume with another liquid, the
mass is 96.75 g. what is the density of the second
liquid? (the density of water is 1 g/ml.)
The density of the second liquid is 0.4496.
What is density?"Density is the mass per unit volume." Density is known as a scalar quantity. It is denoted by a small d and the symbol for density is given as rho, a Greek symbol. Density is calculated as mass divided by volume.
The first density is
A flask weighs 43.50 g = M1
The mass is 96.75 g = M2
D1 = 1 g/ml
Density 2 = ?
The formula
M1 x D1 = M2 x D2
43.50 g x 1 g/ml = 96.75 g x D2
D2 = 43.50 g x 1 g/ml / 96.75 g = 0.4496.
D2 = 0.4496
Thus, the density of the second liquid is 0.4496.
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Which pair of elements would you expect to exhibit the greatest similarity in their physical and chemical properties? sr, te n, p in, sb k, be cr, kr
Nitrogen and phosphorous are pair of elements would you expect to exhibit the greatest similarity in their physical and chemical properties
Nitrogen and phosphorous are in same group VA group called pictogens and nitrogen family Nitrogen and phosphorous pair of elements would you expect to exhibit the greatest similarity in their physical and chemical properties Nitrogen and phosphorous have same valence electron that's why their physical and chemical properties are same
Phosphorus is a chemical element with an atomic number of 15, which means that the atomic structure includes 15 protons and 15 electrons. For Phosphorus, the chemical symbol is P the Phosphorus is also came under VA group called pictogens and nitrogen family thats why Nitrogen and Phosphorus are pair of elements expect to exhibit the greatest similarity in their physical and chemical properties.
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You have just started brewing beer at home, and your first batch is now ready. You used the yeast saccharomyces cerevisia, which can perform both aerobic cellular respiration and fermentation. When you test the beer, you determine that the alcohol content is almost zero. What could have been present in the fermentation reaction apparatus that caused this problem?.
The oxygen present in the fermentation reaction apparatus has caused this problem.
The biological process that produces beer is fermentation. The yeast used to make beer, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is capable of both fermentation and cellular respiration.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae would engage in aerobic cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen, converting glucose to carbon dioxide and producing energy. However, without oxygen, the yeast engages in fermentation and turns the glucose into ethanol (alcohol).
If the alcohol concentration is almost zero following the brewing method, oxygen may be present in the fermentation reaction apparatus. Thus, the Saccharomyces cerevisiae will perform aerobic cellular respiration rather than fermentation in the presence of oxygen.
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1. 34g of CaCO3 was heated and decomposed completely. The reaction equation is shown below.
CaCO3(s) --> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
1.1 calculate the number of moles of CaCO3 that decomposed
1.2. Calculate the number of particles of CaO that can be produced
The number of particles produced is 8.1 * 10^21 particles.
What is number of particles?The equation of the reaction is; [tex]CaCO3(s)-- > CaO(s) + CO2(g)[/tex]. We can be able to obtain the number of moles of the calcium carbonate can be obtained from;
Mass = 1.34 g
Molar mass = 100g
Number of moles = 1.34 g/ 100g = 0.0134 moles
Thus, the number of moles of carbonate that decomposed is 0.0134 moles
Given that the reaction is 1:1 and there are 6.02 * 10^23 particles in 1 mole of CaO, the number of particles of CaO produced is;
0.0134 moles * 6.02 * 10^23 particles = 8.1 * 10^21 particles
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